Tag: Wheat = Triticum aestivum

Basin Irrigation on the Nile, Cairo, Egypt 1870

The Egyptian agricultural year has 3 seasons: The Inundation lasts 4 months from June through September. The Growing Season lasts 5 months from October through February. The Harvest Season lasts 3 months from March through May.

The Nile floodplain is enclosed by dikes to form large basins each containing at least 5,000 acres. Flood waters are regulated by sluice gates. Water is held 30 to 60 days until silt settles and soil is thoroughly saturated. Excess water drains into canals or lower basins. Fields are sown quickly to take advantage of soil moisture. Irrigation is not practical for grain crops so only one planting is made yearly. As there is no rain, cereals must grow and mature solely on water stored in the soil. If the Inundation fails, so do the crops.

When the Inundation at Cairo reaches full height, 1 acre-foot of flood water contains 4.14% silt by weight or approximately 10% by volume = 112,500 pounds per acre or about 2.5 pounds per square foot.

Nile silt averages 0.67% Nitrogen compounds, 0.34% Phosphate, 0.32% Potassium salts, and 1.53% Calcium Carbonate by weight. 1 acre-foot of flood water provides 753 pounds of nitrogen, 382 pounds of phosphate, 360 pounds of potassium salts, and 1,721 pounds of calcium carbonate per acre. These values are unexpectedly generous and may be in error.

[Editor’s Note: The math is not in error. The calculations are correct. The original laboratory results might be suspect. More likely, samples taken from the Nile at High Flood have little relation to the amount of silt actually deposited on basin fields. Substantial amounts of mud settle out as flood waters travel through canals and basins in series. The “real” answer will never be known as the modern Aswan Dam prevents the Nile from flooding].

Silt deposits vary widely depending on distance from the Nile. Riverside fields may receive 1 1/4 inches of silt while basins far from the river get only 1/5th to 1/4 inch or approximately 9,000 to 15,000 pounds per acre.

Canals trap much sit and must be dredged regularly to maintain sufficient volume for irrigation. When the Inundation is low or fields located at the edge of the floodplain, silt deposits are minimal, barely 1/16th inch or 3,800 pounds per acre, approximately 1.4 ounces per square foot.

Yearly silt deposits at El Mansura average 0.20% by weight of floodwater = 36 pounds of nitrogen compounds, 18 pounds of phosphate, 17 pounds of potassium salts, and 83 pounds of calcium carbonate per acre.

Silt deposits are insufficient to maintain soil fertility on most fields in the Delta. Crops must be rotated to sustain yields. Wheat followed by soup beans and then Egyptian clover is the most common rotation cycle.

The annual Inundation is periodic but not predictable. Water volumes vary widely while timing is more consistent. Floods peak in June at Luxor and October in the Delta. The typical flood is 1.5 meters or about 5 feet deep and lasts 4 o 6 weeks. Yearly change in river level is more dramatic: 45 feet at Luxor and 25 feet at Cairo.

When floods are normal, Wheat averages 33 bushels per acre, Barley produces 39 bushels per acre, Maize yields 103 bushels per acre, and Dried Beans make 35 bushels per acre. When flood waters are low, yields may drop 75%. High floods produce bountiful crops, up to 178 bushels of maize per acre. Record yields occur rarely, perhaps once every decade. 3 years out of 10, Nile floods are poor and Egypt starves. Extreme floods also come about once every 10 years and do great damage to irrigation systems.

There is talk of building a dam at Aswan to widen the flood and better regulate irrigation, but opinion is divided as no one has ever attempted a work of this magnitude. The demand for cotton is such that a dam might be financially practical if loans are made by a syndicate of European banks. At present, the cost of such a venture is far too great for the Egyptian Government to bear.

Irrigated Delta cotton yields 375 pounds per acre on Nile mud. Fields spread with 8 donkey carts = 1 short ton of pigeon manure average 768 pounds of fiber per acre. Fields distant from the Nile must be dunged because there is not enough mud to feed the crops. Irrigated fruits and vegetables under date palms receive 10 to 15 tons of common barnyard manure per acre.

The Nile valley is noted for its extreme heat and intense sunlight. Crops is open fields often fail even when irrigated. Consequently, Egyptian farmers plant date palms for shade. Wheat, alfalfa, and vegetables thrive under the palms.

Cotton grows in open fields and is often sown with Egyptian clover. Cotton is planted on the ridges and clover sown in the irrigation furrows.

Local weights and measures are similar to English usage. 1 Feddan = 1.03 acres. 1 Kantar = 99.05 pounds.

[Editor’s Notes: Original transcription from: “Trading Down the Nile”, circa 1870, by Johann Michael Kristoff Koperek, 1811 – 1908. JMK Koperek was a landholder, a student of the soil chemist von Liebig, and the owner of a trading house (import-export business). 1 short ton = 2,000 pounds. 1 long ton = 2,240 pounds].

Related Publications: Biblical Agronomy; Biological Agriculture in Temperate Climates; Crop Rotation Primer.

Would You Like to Know More? For more information on biological agriculture, please visit: http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com — or — send an e-mail to: worldagriculturesolutions@gmail.com — or — send your questions to: Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, 15108 United States of America.

About the Editor: Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida over winter. (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

Index Terms: Agriculture (in Egypt); Barley = Hordeum vulgare; Basin Irrigation; Berseem Clover = Trifolium alexandrinum; Companion Crops; Corn = Zea mays; Cotton = Gossypium hirsutum; Cotton Farming; Crop Rotation; Dried Beans = Phaseous vulgaris; Egyptian Clover = Trifolium alexandrinum; Manure (as fertilizer); Nile River (annual floods); Pigeon Manure (as fertilizer); Polycrops; Ridge and Furrow Irrigation; Soup Beans = Phaseolus vulgaris; Wheat = Triticum aestivum; Wheat Farming.

Original Publication Date: circa 1870, Vienna, Austria, by Johann Michael Kristoff Koperek, 1811 – 1908.

Update: August 2023, Venus, Florida.

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STRIP CROPPING PRIMER

What Is It?     Strip cropping is a natural way to control pests without using insecticides.  Unrelated crops are grown in narrow strips to increase biodiversity and maximize edge effects.  Beneficial insects flourish and eat harmful bugs.

The Edge Effect:     Life increases proportionately to the boundary area between different environments.  For example, a meadow and a hedgerow are unique ecologies.  Each has its own mixture of species.  There is an abundance of food and shelter along the edge where the two environments meet.  Interaction along this edge promotes large populations and increased diversity.

Ecology Math:     Square fields have less edge than rectangular fields.  For example, a square field measuring 300 feet on each side has 1,200 feet of edge (300 feet per side x 4 sides = 1,200 feet).  Take the same field and stretch it into a rectangle 100 feet wide x 900 feet long.  Both fields have the same area (90,000 square feet) but the rectangular field has 2,000 feet of edge (900 + 900 + 100 + 100 = 2,000 feet).  The perimeter of the rectangular field is 40% larger than the square field.  More edges = more food and habitat = more species and larger populations.  Hunters understand this instinctively.  Long, narrow fields have more browse (twigs and buds) along their perimeter.  More hedgerow = more browse = more food = more deer.

Agricultural History:     Farming in the Middle Ages was not easy.  Wood plows were heavy and difficult to turn.  The solution was to make long, narrow fields.  Long fields required fewer turns.  Each field was one “furrow” long = 1 furlong = 1/8th mile = 220 yards long x 22 yards wide = 4,840 square yards = 1 acre.  A man with a team of oxen took a whole day to plow 1 acre.  Adjacent fields were planted to unrelated crops, for example:  Peas, Wheat, Turnips, and Pasture.  Narrow strips and diverse crops increased edge effects supporting large populations of beneficial insects.  The good bugs ate the bad bugs.

Agroecology:     Wind the clock back to when knights went clanking around in armor.  Northwest France (Normandy) was divided into thousands of little fields surrounded by hedgerows.  Each field measured about 1 1/4 acres.  This mixture of small fields and hedgerows is called bocage.  The bocage landscape contains hundreds of miles of biological edges = vast populations of predatory and parasitic insects.  Modern farmers in the bocage rarely have pest problems.  Significant outbreaks occur about once every 20 years and are mostly self-correcting without insecticides.

“Altering the geometry of fields costs nothing and can reduce or eliminate pesticide use.”

Practical Polyculture:     Plant 4 rows of corn then 4 rows of soybeans.  Repeat this pattern across fields and farms following land contours.  Result:  Pests go down 50% and corn yields go up 15% (because of increased light penetration into the crop canopy).

  • Alternate tall and short crops.  Insect pests do not like fields with mixed light and shade.  Example:  Sunflowers — Alfalfa — Barley — Lentils
  • Adjust strip widths to fit planting and harvesting equipment.  Try to keep strip widths as narrow as mechanically practical.  Narrow strips better control insect pests.  Plant strips no wider than 200 feet to encourage rapid movement of beneficial insects into fields.  Example:  Hay (150 feet) + Soup Beans (75 feet) + Safflowers (75 feet)
  • Plant adjacent strips to unrelated crops.  Plant as many different crops as economically practical.  Diverse crops reduce insect pests and spread market risk.  Example:  Wheat — Peas — Flax — Soy Beans — Barley — Alfalfa
  • Seed grains and legumes together.  Legumes fix nitrogen, protect soil and control weeds.  Example:  Winter Wheat + Dutch White Clover  — or —  Field Corn + Red Clover  — or —  Oats + Forage Peas  — or — Winter Rye + Winter Vetch
  • Alternate legumes with non-legumes.  Legumes improve soil, feed earthworms and attract beneficial insects.  Example:  Canary Seed — Lentils — Barley — Soy Beans — Wheat — Field Peas — Flax — Alfalfa
  • Plant windbreaks not closer than 50 feet nor farther than 150 feet apart.  Windbreaks increase biological diversity and help crops grow better.  Windbreaks do not have to be great belts of trees.  A single row of shrubs or perennial pampas grass will slow wind and increase crop humidity.  Example:  Trees (25 feet wide) + Cropland (150 feet wide)  — or —  Shrubs (10 feet wide) + Cropland (100 feet wide)  — or — Pampas Grass (3 feet wide) + Cropland (50 feet wide)
  • Alternate strips of native weeds with cropland.  Space weed strips not farther than 200 feet apart.  Weeds should comprise at least 5% to 10% of total cropland.  Native weeds are essential to provide food and shelter for beneficial insects.  Example:  Weed Strip (15 feet) + Cropland (135 feet)
  • Plant several varieties of the same crop together.  Choose varieties that have the same harvest date.  Varieties can be mixed or drilled in separate rows.  Alternatively, plant similar species that ripen together.  For example:  Winter Wheat + Winter Rye.  Genetic diversity reduces the chances of crop failure due to weather, disease or insects.

Try This On Your Farm:     Divide big fields into narrow strips and watch your pest problems go away.  Strip cropping combines the biological advantages of polycultures with the economic efficiency of farm machinery.

Related Publications:     Crop Rotation Primer; Biblical Agriculture; The Twelve Apostles; Maize Polyculture Trial 2007-2016; Managing Weeds as Cover Crops; Trash Farming; No-Till Hungarian Stock Squash; Planting Maize with Living Mulches; Living Mulches for Weed Control; 2012 Tomato and Sweet Potato Polyculture Trial; Crops Among the Weeds; and The Edge Effect.

Would You Like To Know More?     Contact the Author directly if you have any questions or need more information about polycultures or strip cropping.  Please visit:  http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com  — or — send your questions to:  Eric Koperek, Editor, World Agriculture Solutions, 413 Cedar Drive, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, 15108 United States of America  — or — send an e-mail to:  http://www.worldagriculturesolutions.com

About The Author:     Mr. Koperek is a plant breeder who farms in Pennsylvania during summer and Florida during winter.  (Growing 2 generations yearly speeds development of new crop varieties).

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